Domain of Islam -- Encyclopedia

Lands of Muslims

Term

ANDALUS DoiAdmins

Andalusia When It Was...

By Maryam Noor Beig

Al-Andalus, which means, "to become green at the end of the summer" is
referred to the territory occupied by the Muslim empire in Southern Spain,
which refer to the cities of Almeria, Malaga, Cadiz, Huelva, Seville, Cordoba,
Jaen and Granada. 1 This civilization spanned the eighth to the fifteenth century.
In 711, Arabs crossed the Straight of Gibraltar (derived from 'Gabal Al-Tariq':
'Mountain of Tariq') and established control over much of the Iberian Peninsula.
2 Of the Arab conquest, Muslims called the area of the Iberian Peninsula they
occupied, "Al-Andalus." This land called Al-Andalus, hence often
called "Andalusia" had at one point included Portugal, Southern France,
and the Balearic Islands. Within 3 years, in 714, Muslims had occupied almost
all the peninsula. Muslims crossed to Sicily and established control there
for 130 years, until Muslim rule fell in 1091 to the Normans. Muslims also
established rule in parts of France, but they were soon defeated by Charles
Martel in 756, in which remains today one of the greatest victories for Christian
Europe for bringing a halt to Islam's expansion. The Muslims who arrived and
settled in Andalus were called "Moors," ('dark') a corrupt and negative
term referring to the people who came from Morocco. They themselves, however,
did not use the term to refer to themselves.

Muslims took control under the leadership of Tariq ibn Ziyad and his army
of 12,000 troops. King Roderic, the last Visigoth ruler had reportedly "kidnapped" and
raped the Governor of Ceuta, Count Julian's daughter who was sent to be educated.
Julian vowed to Roderic, "the next time I return to Spain, I promise to
bring you some hawks the like of which your Majesty has never seen!" Julian,
a Christian, appealed to Musa ibn Nusayr, the Umayyad Governor of N. Africa
for assistance in avenging Roderic for his crime, and hence take him out of
rule. Musa did not commit to a full-scale invasion, but called upon his lieutenant
to take charge. Because of the weakened Visigoth kingdom due to internal conflicts,
and the Muslims' organization, the Muslim army easily defeated Roderic's army
of over 90,000 men almost without resistance. 3

As an important reminder, during Islamic rule in Muslim history, we recall
that upon hearing the news that a Muslim woman had been dishonored, Khilafah
(Caliph) Jafer Al-Mansoor, despite risk of inciting war, ordered his entire
army to burn the city in protest because the Roman Emperor failed to punish
the offenders.

Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Straight of 'Gibraltar' at first with the sole
intention of avenging king Roderic for the crime he committed. However, because
of the weakness of the kingdom due to civil war, Tariq opted to continue his
occupation of Roderic's entire empire. Another theory for the occupation by
the Arab Muslims of Spain is that because of their persecution, the Jews called
upon their contacts in North Africa, who in turn encouraged the able Arabs
to capture Spain. This allowed the Almoravids and the Almohads to establish
themselves in Spain. 4 Nevertheless, without a doubt, the Jews supported and
welcomed Muslims in Spain because they were great beneficiaries under Muslim
rule. 5

Muslims entered Spain not as aggressors or oppressors, but as liberators.
In this multicultural society, many Jews and Christians held government positions.
Moreover, the Golden Age of Jewish history is in fact known as the period of
Muslim rule in Spain. Islam allowed the Jews to flourish in Spain, with the
example of the renowned philosopher Moses Maimonides, (Musa ibn Maymun) who
wrote Guide to the Perplexed. "Judaism probably welcomed the conquest
of Spain by the Muslims in 711. With the Muslim conquest began a Golden Age
of freedom and tolerance for Jews. They freely entered the fields of government,
science, medicine, and literature." 6 Spain was home to by far the largest
and most brilliant Jewish community in Europe; elsewhere, the Jews were hounded
and persecuted. Although non-Muslims paid more in taxes than the Muslims, it
was by far less than any previous government had imposed upon them, especially
Roderic's. In addition, it obviously wasn't much of a burden, however, since
non-Muslims freely opted and longed to live under Muslim rule.

"Throughout the period of Islamic rule, Al-Andalus was a remarkable example
and outstanding model of tolerance." 7 We fail to remember that the tolerance
the Muslims, in accordance to their faith, displayed towards the Jews and Christians
enabled them all to live together in relative peace and harmony, an indication
of the Greatness of Islam, without question. No where else has there been so
long and so close of a relationship between the 3 Great faiths. All Jews and
Christians were allowed to maintain their beliefs and live their lives as they
desired as long as they respected their Muslim rulers. "Some Mozarabs
took issue with the tolerance Muslim authorities displayed toward them and
the Jews, a tolerance based on two Qur'anic verses: "No compulsion is
there in religion" (2:256) and "If thy Lord had willed, whoever is
in the earth would have believed, all of them, all together. Wouldst thou then
constrain the people until they are believers?" (10:99)..." 8 As
a result of the compassion Islam displayed towards the non-Muslims inhabitants,
many of them embraced Islam. Many accepted Islam simply because Islam provided
a superior, healthier way of life at a time when the social system was in rapid
decay. 9 Unfortunately, religious tolerance was never a virtue in Christian
Europe, as in the example of Charlemagne. 10 And so, the peace exhibited under
Muslim rule did not continue after the last of the Muslim rulers was defeated
in 1492.

In chapter 109 of the Qur'an, the Holy Book revealed to the Prophet Muhammad
(PBUH) through the Angel Gabriel, Allah advises mankind:

"Say to the disbelievers:

I do not worship that which you worship.

Nor do you worship that which I worship.

And Nor will I worship that which you have worshiped.

Neither will you worship that which I worship.

To you belongs your religion, and to me mine."

"In a time of tranquility and justice, the Christians have never been
compelled to renounce the Gospel and to embrace the Qur'an." 11 As a result
of the tolerance displayed by Islam, the incredibly rich language of the Muslims
became the official language of literature and scholarship in Spain for all
by the year 1000. Christians, Jews, and Muslims alike devoted their time in
studying Arabic. Christians essentially spoke Arabic, which was "often
better than their Latin." 12 They absorbed the Arabic culture so much
so that they began to be called, "mozarabs" a corruption of "must'arib" meaning
the "Arabized ones." Furthermore, the Christian Priest Alvaro complained
in the 9th century that Christians preferred to read Arabic writings and studied
Muslim theologians and philosophers rather than their own. He exclaimed, "Oh,
the pain and the sorrow! The Christians have even forgotten their own language,
and in every thousand you will not find one who can write a letter in respectable
Latin to a friend, while as soon as they have to write Arabic, there is no
difficulty in finding a whole multitude who can express themselves with the
greatest elegance in this language..." 13

The Muslims played a principal role in the history of Spain. Their presence
illuminated the Iberian Peninsula while the rest of Europe was engulfed in
darkness. And so, Andalusia produced a great civilization far ahead and advanced
than the rest of Europe. Under their rule, Muslims made Spain a center for
learning and knowledge. The Muslims were taught reading, writing, math, Arabic,
Qur'an, and Hadith (Sayings of the Prophet Muhammad PBUH), and became leaders
in math, science, medicine, astronomy, navigation, etc. Al-Andalus became renowned
for its prosperity as people who quested for knowledge journeyed from afar
to learn in its universities under the feet of the Muslims. As a result, Andalus
gave rise to a great many intellectual giants. Muslim Spain produced philosophers,
physicians, scientists, judges, artists, and the like. Ibn Rushd, (Averroes)
Ibn Sina, (Avicenna) Ibn Zuhr, (Avenzoar), Al-Kwarizmi, (Algorizm) and Al-Razi,
(Razes) to name a few, were all Muslims educated in Andalus. 14 Martin Luther,
the founder of Protestantism, was also educated in Andalusia. It is from the
Andalusian philosophers, Ibn Rushd, and Ibn Sina that great renowned Christian
men like St. Thomas Aquinas borrowed their philosophies. Both St. Thomas Aquinas
and Dante called Ibn Rushd or "Averroes" the "The Commentator" and
incorporated the views of Muslims. Through the works of Aristotle, Ibn Rushd
reconciled reason with religion. However, Aquinas attempted to refute Ibn Rushd's
ideas because they placed a great deal of emphasis on human reason over faith,
which were a "threat" to Christian beliefs. 15 Interestingly enough,
Thomas Aquinas described Arabs as "brutal men dwelling in the desert." Dante
himself was familiar with Muslim figures. It is reported by countless historians,
including William Phipps, in his book, Muhammad and Jesus: A Comparison of
the Prophets and their Teachings, that the theme of Divine Comedy was inspired
by the mi'raj or ascension of the Prophet (PBUH) into heaven from upon the
rock which today sits below the dome of Masjid Al-Aqsa in Jerusalem. 16 Roger
Bacon, another individual who refrained from describing Arabs and Muslims in
kind words, consulted Ibn Sina's (Avicenna) work. Ibn Sina's work, Al-Qanun,
(Canon) the widely studied medical work was used in European Universities for
over 300 years, and formed half the medical curriculum. 17 In any case, the
list of contributions from the Andalusian Muslims is endless.

The Islamic civilization had reached its peak in the 10th century, and by
1100, the number of Muslims rose to 5.6 million. 18 There existed in Cordoba
alone, 200,000 houses, 600 mosques, 900 public baths, 10,000 lamps, 50 hospitals,
lighted and paved streets. Muslims introduced public baths because of their
need to to wash in preparation for prayer 5x a day. Libraries and research
institutions grew rapidly in Muslim Spain, while the rest of Europe remained
illiterate.

In Muslim Spain, knowledge from Greece and Rome was preserved. Arab scholars
produced encyclopedias on medicine and astronomy in 11th century, also including
astrology, psychology, zoology, biology, botany, chemistry, physics, mathematics,
algebra, geometry, trigonometry, etc., which Christian scholars acquired and
translated. Toledo thrived essentially because of its Muslim rule, and became
the "cradle of learning," and the chief point of interaction between
the Muslims, Christians and Jews. Western scholars traveled to Spain and Sicily
to learn Arabic and to make transcripts of texts in Latin. Muslims produced
cotton, paper, salt, silk, satin, pepper, stamps, clocks, soaps, rulers, maps,
globes, furs, velvets, described over 200 surgical instruments, and named over
200 stars with Arabic names. Hence, it was this Islamic civilization in Spain
that was the main threshold behind the European Renaissance. During the time
the Muslims set foot in Spain in 711 until 1084 (a year before Toledo was taken)
Muslim Spain had become an area unique to the entire world.

The Muslim artisans applied their remarkable skills to architecture in making
mosques (masajid) and palaces. The Muslims mastered technique and design. The
Alhambra Palace, and The Great Mosque of Cordoba, are just two of the famous
magnificent architectural masterpieces of the Muslims which can still be seen
today. Of the Alhambra, it is called, "a utopia, the brightest memory
of a lost golden age of pleasure, poetry, tolerance, art, and learning." 19
One Muslim poet wrote:

"A sun dwells in this place and even its shadow is blessed.

In this palace a multitude of pleasures capture the eye and suspend the intellect.

Here a crystal world teaches marvels.

Everywhere Beauty is carved, opulence is manifest."

The Islamic architecture in Spain is elaborate and decorative with intricate
designs. Stone, and stucco, plaster for coating exterior walls, were widely
favored. Later, brick replaced stone. 20 The "Mezquita" or The Great
Mosque of Cordoba and the Alhambra of Granada are two Islamic monuments that
utilize this design. There are, however, not many examples of Islamic architecture
remaining today in Spain because many were destroyed or converted from mosques
to churches when Muslims were later exterminated (officially) in the year 1492
and beyond. The Alhambra is the only palace left nearly intact and preserved
of all the Muslim masterpieces in Spain. 21

Narrated by Ibn Abbas (RA), the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) said: "Whoever
creates a living image in this world (i.e, human, animal) will be charged with
putting a soul in it which he will never be able to do."

Muslim artists were prohibited from making images of living things so that
they could concentrate on the oneness of God. Paintings of inanimate objects,
trees and flowers were permitted. Islamic ideology teaches that the making
of images can lead to idolatry. It can also lead to praising of one's own work,
which does away with humility and humbleness, important virtues stressed in
Islam. Inevitably, it leads to one's neglect of the remembrance of Allah, and
one's neglect of the fact that it was Allah who gave the artist the talent
from birth. It is also rivaling with Allah Himself who is the sole creator
of the Universe and its inhabitants. Though many of Muslims therefore abstained
from painting figures of people and animals, Islamic art was far from lacking
beauty. Muslim scribes in Spain developed calligraphy into art form. Islamic
art is known for its repetitious patterns, a constant reminder of the uniqueness
of God. 22 Calligraphical, floral, arabesque, and geometric designs flourished
in the Muslim world.

"The city of Granada finds her equal not in Cairo, nor Damascus, nor
Iraq. She is the Bride Unveiled While the others are just the dowry."

The "Alhambra" meaning the "Red Fort" or "Red Palace" is
located in the city of Granada ('Gharnatah'). It is called the "Red Fort" because
of the red of the surrounding landscape. Alhambra comes from the Arabic word, "Al-Hamra" meaning "the
red." The construction was begun in the Nasrid period, and completed in
the fourteenth century. Muhammad al-Ghalib built the foundations of the Alhambra
while further construction was made by his son, Muhammad II. Inside and around
the Alhambra are inscriptions of Arabic writing like "Kingdom is for Allah" and "Wa
La Ghalib illa Allah," which means, "There is no Conqueror (Victor)
except Allah." king Abu Abdullah (Boabdil) was called by his people as, "Al-Ghalib" (The
Conqueror). Yet, when recognizing his imminent defeat, he exclaimed otherwise
proclaiming that none other than God was the Greatest. Hence, "There is
no Conqueror except God," became the motto of his descendents. 23 Among
other verses and poetry inscribed on the Alhambra walls are poems by Ibn Zamrak
who was also the chief minister to King Muhammad V, and Ibn Al-Khatib who was
also a historian, and a physician.

The splendor of the Alhambra and its gardens have inspired many musicians,
artists, and authors. Among them was renowned author, Washington Irving, who
took up residence in the Alhambra and wrote Tales of the Alhambra. The artist
M.C. Escher's interest began when in 1936 he visited the Alhambra and was fascinated
with its tile patterns, and spent days sketching them. The inspiration here
lay the foundation for his work - for which he is most famous for. He based
his work on these intricate Arabic designs, and repetitive floral and mathematical
patterns.

The Golden Age of Islam began under 'Abdur-Rahman, the first Umayyad ruler,
called the "Falcon of Andalus." He united the various tribes and
groups of peoples in Andalusia when he became ameer (caliph) of Cordoba in
756. 24 Soon after he was proclaimed ameer, he laid plans to begin the construction
of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. It was at one time the second largest mosque
in the Muslim world. Al-Hakam, 'Abdur-Rahman's son, was responsible for extending
the Great Mosque in 961-966. 25 The mihrab of the Mosque of Cordoba, a niche
in the wall indicating the direction of the Kaaba, was reportedly decorated
with 320 bags of mosaic cubes; a mixture of Byzantine art along with corinthean
and ionic pillars. 26 On the greatness of the Great Mosque, "One can understand
perfectly the exaltation of the poet who praises its greatness: 'The gold shines
in your domes like the lightening which flashes among the clouds.'" 27
Muslim Cordoba was described as the "jewel of the tenth century." It
was compared with Constantinople and Baghdad. 28 Cordoba, Seville, and Madinat
al-Zahra in the 10th century were one of the greatest centers of art and culture.
29 In fact, Madinat al-Zahra, the caliphate residence, was regarded as one
of the "wonders of the age" until it was destroyed in the 11th century.

Muslim Spain saw many dynasties that ruled her. The 11th century marked the
decline of the Umayyad empire, which had ruled for some 300 years, with the
rise of small parties in 1010. In 1056 rose the Almoravides. As the Almoravides
began to disintegrate, the Almohades emerged by 1130 -- whose decline in 1269
paved way for Christian forces to begin gaining control of much of the peninsula.
Toledo and Cordoba were already in Christian control. In 1492, with the fall
of the last Nasrid ruler in Granada, Andalus was finally taken by the Christian
troops under Ferdinand and Isabella.

In 1469, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon had married to unite
their kingdoms in order to occupy Spain. Cordoba was taken by Castile in 1236,
and Seville in 1248. Only Granada remained as the last Muslim stronghold until.
Section by section, Ferdinand and Isabella finally took Spain in 1492.

"...Where are the great kings who built cities and castles and fortified
them with towering walls? What happened to the lionhearted valorous ones who
made their enemy suffer humiliation in the battlefields? Time waned under their
feet and they ended inside dark graves. Think of it and take heed." (Abu
Bakr (R.A.) in the Beauty of the Righteous and the Ranks of the Elite)

Muhammad XII, known as Abu Abdullah ('Father of Abdullah') and hence as "Boabdil" was
the last king of Granada who reigned during the Nasrid period. Abu Abdullah
signed the treaty in November 1491 for the surrender of Granada in January
of 1492. 30 He was exiled while his people were left to be persecuted. To her
distraught and weeping son, Aishah, said unforgiving, "You weep like a
woman for a city you could not defend like a man!"

The surrender of Granada, however, did not quite mark the end of Islam in
Spain. Islam had remained strong in Spain for eight centuries. However, as
the military power in the Christian North began to strengthen, Al-Andalus gradually
began to shrink. A few centuries later, the Muslims and Islam disappeared from
Spain entirely.

Isabella, in her fierce quest to eradicate Islam from Spain, issued forth
decrees of mass conversions in her 'Holy War' ** against the Muslims. Muslim
prayers were forbidden and mosques in their original splendor were destroyed
and converted into churches. 31 Muslims were converted to Christianity, who
were usually insincere Christians fearing for their lives, but remained Muslim
by heart. They too, called "Moriscos" were soon to be expelled, in
1605, because they weren't accepted as real Christians, and certainly weren't
allowed to live as Muslims and embrace Islam openly. 32

1492, is better known as the year Columbus "discovered" America.
In fact, current research suggests that IT discovered him, and that he actually
never set foot on the mainland. 33 Furthermore, we learn that among other words
of Arabic origin is the name of the capital city of Florida, Tallahassee. Among
other names are "zenith," (cenit) "nadir," (nadir) "lemon," (limun) "sugar," (sukkar) "orange," (naranj) "banana," (banana) "alcohol," (al-kohl) "algebra," (al-jabr) "atlas," (atlas) "safari," (safr)
and even "Hawaii" comes from the Arabic word, "Hawaa." As
a matter of fact, almost all of the Native tribes' vocabulary included the
word "Allah." Traces of the Arab culture brought here to the Native
Americans can still be seen today, in this letter from a Native American Muslim.
The languages of Spanish, Italian, English, Urdu, and Hindi all have traces
of Arabic influence. Wherever the Muslims went, they brought their culture
and language. Within a century of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH)'s death, Islam
spread across as far West as Spain and Portugal, and as far East as China.

Columbus reportedly observed that the dress code for the Native American women
were modest long dresses, and of the dress code included the covering of the
face (like the women of Andalusia). The Native peoples had a great civilization
prior to Columbus' arrival. During their expansion west, Muslims were already
thinking about voyaging to America in 956 because it was well-known to them
that America existed and they had the technology to cross the Atlantic. Some
historians, in fact, suggest that Spain's Muslims arrived in America 500 years
prior to Columbus. (956 would then seem accurate) America was the "New
World" only to the Europeans. 34 If it weren't for the maps of Andalusian
Muslim, Al-Idrisi (Dreses) Columbus wouldn't have been able to set sail, period.
In October of 1492, Columbus claimed he saw a mosque and discovered "bearded
men (like the men of Andalusia) who knelt for prayer 5 times a day." In
addition, at least 30% of men brought into America with Columbus were Muslim.
35 Historians Sylvianne Diouf and Allan Austin shed light on the topic of Muslims
in the Americas. 36

In 1492, we also learn of the mass exodus from Spain, due to the inquisition
ordered by Queen Isabella. Many Muslims and Jews left Andalusia because their
rights were taken from them. However, they were very fortunate if they were
able to escape with their lives from their own land. Muslims were ordered to
convert or be killed. Many stayed behind and secretly remained Muslim, while
others who resisted were burned at the stake. An estimated 3 million were expelled
from Spain, along with all of Spain's skilled workers and masterminds. Undoubtedly,
Spain soon found herself victim to her own cruelty... 37

"The land deprived of skillful irrigation of the Moors grew impoverished
and neglected, the richest and most fertile valleys languished and were deserted,
and most of the populous cities which had filled every district in Andalusia,
fell into ruinous decay; and beggars, friars, and bandits took the place of
scholars, merchants and knights. So low fell Spain when she had driven away
the Moors. Such is the melancholy contrast offered by her history." 38

Until the inquisition, Muslims were free to practice their religion freely.
However, during the inquisition led by Isabella, the rights of Muslims and
Jews were taken away. The final expulsion occurred in early 17th century when
all the remaining 'Moriscos,' those who were forcibly baptized, were forced
from Spain in 1605. 39 The inquisition was finally completed, and naturally,
Spain fell into depression and was reduced to nothingness.

"The Arabs suddenly appeared in Spain like a star which crosses through
the air with its light, spreads its flames on the Horizon and then vanishes
rapidly into naught." 40

Later kings failed to implement the teachings of Islam. Internal divisions
and personal conflicts amongst the corrupt Muslim leaders led to the end of
Islamic rule at the hands of the crusading Christians. As time went on, the
inhabitants of Andalus in their enjoyment of their prosperity and wealth became
even more materialistic. The first Muslims, however, affirmed the declaration
of faith, "There is no God except Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of
Allah," prayed five times a day, fasted in the month of Ramadan, gave
2.5% of their savings to charity, and performed the pilgrimage to Mecca if
they had the means. Muslims prevailed in Al-Andalus because they had forgotten
their Arabness or "Arabism." They were aware that they were Muslims
only, and not divided by race, or nationality. Islam gave the Arabs an identity.
An example of the Arabs before the advent of Islam: "When news is brought
to him of the birth of a female child, his face darkens and he is filled with
inner grief! With shame does he hide himself from his people because of the
bad news he has received. Shall he retain it or bury it in the dust? What an
evil choice they decide on!" (Qur'an, 16:58-59) Islam emerged and elevated
the status of women, and strongly condemned this practice. "And when the
baby girl that was buried alive is asked for what crime was she killed!?...then
every soul will know what he has done!" (81:8-9;14)

What were the Arabs before Islam? Sayyid Qutb (outstanding Muslim scholar,
born in 1906 executed by the Egyptian government in 1966 because of his passion
for Islam) in his commentary of Surah al-Feel (Chapter 105) of the Holy Qur'an
states, "The only ideology the Arabs advanced for mankind was the Islamic
faith which raised them to the position of human leadership. If they forsake
it they will no longer have any function or role to play in human history...It
is Allah who provides guidance for us lest we go astray."

"This day I have perfected your religion for you and have completed My
favor upon you and have chosen for you Islam as your religion..." (Qur'an,
5:3). By analyzing the tragedy of Islam in Andalus, we find that the Muslims
of Spain disregarded the fact that Allah indeed blessed them with Islam, and
therefore went astray. They were so successful that as a result, Muslims believe
that they treasured the wealth they accumulated so much so that they became
arrogant and deviated from the practice of Al-Islam; disregarding the commandments
of Allah, and the Sunnah (imitating his actions, and way of life) of the Prophet
(PBUH). They failed to remember their prosperity and wealth came from Allah
and Him alone. Therefore, Allah took away the abundance of wealth, power, supremacy,
and favors that He bestowed upon them so that they would remember. Allah says
in the Qur'an, "Remember Me, and I will remember you. Give thanks to Me
and never deny Me" (2:152). When the Muslims in Spain neglected Allah,
He therefore neglected them. Allah asks mankind repeatedly in chapter 55, Surah
Rahman, of the Qur'an, "Which of the favors of your Lord will you deny?" --All
praise and glory is due to Allah, and Him alone!

Historian L.P. Harvey stated that we must not dwell on the failure of the
Muslims in Spain, and instead admire the stubbornness put forth by the Muslims
in defense of their land.

The legacy of al-Andalus serves as a lesson for Muslims. The persecution of
Muslims in the 13th, 14th, and 15th centuries was a great trial of their faith,
as is the entire life of a Muslim; this was a great challenge from Allah. Many
died fighting for Islam aware of the rewards for such a death. 41

For those Muslims who were driven out of Andalus or were slain for their unwavering
faith, Allah reassures mankind, "...I will forgive all the shortcomings
and remove the evil deeds of those who were expelled from their homes or were
persecuted for My sake and who fought for My cause and were slain. I shall
admit them into Gardens underneath which rivers flow. This is their reward
from Allah, and with Allah alone is the richest reward!" (Qur'an, 3:195)
Allah humma Ameen!

"Spain and the West stand forever in their debt." 42 The Muslims
were instrumental in making Spain a "Paradise on Earth," and issuing
forth the Renaissance. I've observed that professors of philosophy, theology
and history will agree with you concerning the greatness of Muslim Spain, yet
they only speak of it once you've initiated the conversation! Muslim Spain
is hardly spoken of, while the works of Muslims in Al-Andalus until this day
remain unknown and underappreciated. "The intellectual community which
the northern scholars found in Spain was so far superior to what they had at
home that it left a lasting jealousy of Arab culture, which was to color Western
opinions for centuries." 43

The 1.2 billion plus Muslims of the world today have the same potential as
of the Muslims of the past. One of our great many challenges today is to recreate
the dynamic legacy which existed in Al-Andalus. In the example of the main
character, 'Isabella,' (a REAL Queen!) in Dehlvi's book, the Andalusian Muslimah
(female Muslim) who lived and died for Islam, we must remind the world that
Al-Andalus was a supreme example of tolerance and justice because of the religion
of Spain's people, not the fact that they were Arab or Spanish by race. By
its outstanding example, Muslim Spain proves to the world that as a melting
pot of religious faiths and races, we can, in reality, live and prosper with
one another.

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Footnotes:

1. Barrucand, Marianne. Moorish Architecture in Andalusia. Italy: Taschen,
1992.

2. Grabar, Oleg. Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York: Abrams, 1992.

3. Irving, Thomas B. (Ta'lim Ali) Falcon of Spain. Pakistan: Ashraf Printing
Press, 1980.

4. Vernet, Juan. Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York: Abrams, 1992.

5. Burckhardt, Titus. Moorish Architecture in Spain. New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1972.

6. Hopfe, Lewis. Religions of the World. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998.

7. Benchrifa, Mohamed. The Routes of Al-Andalus. http://mirror-us.unesco.org/culture/al-andalus/html_eng/andalus2.htm.

8. Vernet, Juan. Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York: Abrams, 1992.

9. Thomson, Ahmad. Blood on the Cross: Islam in Spain in the Light of Christian
Persecution through the Ages England: TaHa Publishers Ltd, 1989.

10. Shubert, Adrian. The Land and People of Spain. New York: Harper Collins
Publishers, 1992.

11. Gibbon, E. Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

12. Barrucand, Marianne. Moorish Architecture in Andalusia. Italy: Taschen,
1992.

13. Barrucand, Marianne. Moorish Architecture in Andalusia. Italy: Taschen,
1992.

14. For a list of bios of outstanding Andalusian intellectuals visit: Muslim
Scientists and Islamic Civilizations. http://users.erols.com/zenithco/index.html.
By Dr. A. Zahoor.

15. Shubert, Adrian. The Land and People of Spain. New York: Harper Collins
Publishers, 1992.

16. Chejne, Anwar. Muslim Spain: Its history and culture. Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota Press, 1974.

17. Saud, Muhammad. Islam and Evolution of Science. India: Adam Publishers & Distributers,
1994. and Vernet, Juan. Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York: Abrams, 1992.

18. Harvey, L.P. Islamic Spain: 1250-500. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1990.

19. Barrucand, Marianne. Moorish Architecture in Andalusia. Italy: Taschen,
1992.

20. King, Geoffrey. Architecture of the Islamic World. London: Thames and Hudson,
1978.

21. Rodriguez, D.C. Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. The Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York: Abrams, 1992.

22. Grabar, Oleg. The Alhambra. Massachusetts: Harvard University, 1978.

23. Irving, Washington. Tales of the Alhambra. Spain, 1832.

24. Thomson, Ahmad. Blood on the Cross: Islam in Spain in the Light of Christian
Persecution through the Ages England: TaHa Publishers Ltd, 1989.

25. King, Geoffrey. Architecture of the Islamic World. London: Thames and Hudson,
1978.

26. Islamic Arts & Architecture. http://www.islamicart.com; and Prof. Waldron's
class notes.

27. All Cordoba. Spain: Editorial Escudo de Oro, 1980.

28. King, Geoffrey. Architecture of the Islamic World. London: Thames and Hudson,
1978.

29. Grabar, Oleg. Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain. The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York: Abrams, 1992.

30. Zahoor, A. Muslim Scientists and Islamic Civilizations. http://users.erols.com/zenithco/index.html.

** "Jihad" has repeatedly been translated as "Holy War" by
the West to paint Muslims as barbarians forcing Islam at the sword, when the
fact of the matter is that the term "Holy War" was coined during
the Crusades, wars initiated by the Christians against the Muslims. One historian
notes that the legend of fanatical Muslims sweeping across the world at the
point of the sword is an "absurd myth:" Absolute nonsense!

31. Hasan, Khola. The Crumbling Minarets of Spain. Saudi Arabia: Abul Qasim
Publications, 1991.

32. Thomson, Ahmad. Blood on the Cross: Islam in Spain in the Light of Christian
Persecution through the Ages England: TaHa Publishers Ltd, 1989.

33. Quick, Abdullah Hakim. Muslims in the Americas before Columbus lecture
on video.

34. Thomson, Ahmad. Blood on the Cross: Islam in Spain in the Light of Christian
Persecution through the Ages England: TaHa Publishers Ltd, 1989.

35. Quick, Abdullah Hakim. Muslims in the Americas before Columbus Lecture
on video.

36. Diouf, Sylvianne. Servants of Allah: African Muslims enslaved in the Americas,
and Austin, Allan. African Muslims in Antebellum America.

37. Abercrombie, Thomas. When the Moors Ruled Spain. http://www.geocities.com/mfbeig/abercrombie.html.

38. Lane-Poole, Stanley. The Moors in Spain Beirut: Khayats, 1967.

39. Thomson, Ahmad. Blood on the Cross: Islam in Spain in the Light of Christian
Persecution through the Ages England: TaHa Publishers Ltd, 1989.

40. Conde, as quoted in Prescott, Philip II of Spain, Vol. III.

41. Thomson, Ahmad. Blood on the Cross: Islam in Spain in the Light of Christian
Persecution through the Ages England: TaHa Publishers Ltd, 1989.

42. Abercrombie, Thomas. When the Moors Ruled Spain. http://www.geocities.com/mfbeig/abercrombie.html

43. Burke, James. Boston: Little Brown & Company, 1985.